Antibodies are large proteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily, which are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease. Antibodies, however, can be generated to recognize virtually any molecule in existence.
An antibody can be used to detect small molecules, such as hormones in the human body. A cloned, laboratory-engineered antibody is designed to specifically recognize and bind to these molecules. Through biotechnological processes, these antibodies can be produced in large quantities and with high specificity to target molecules, making them invaluable tools for diagnostic assays, research, and therapeutic applications.
By binding to specific hormones, these antibodies can facilitate the detection and quantification of hormone levels in various biological samples, aiding in disease diagnosis and monitoring. Antibodies can be used to monitor hormone levels in saliva due to their high specificity to target molecules. When an antibody and its corresponding hormone in saliva bind together they form a complex that can be detected and quantified by various methods.
Electrochemical sensing utilizing antibodies represents a frontier in biosensor technology, merging the specificity of immunological reactions with the sensitivity of electrochemical detection. This synergy enables the precise quantification of a wide array of biological targets, from pathogens and proteins to small molecules and ions, with applications spanning self-monitoring, healthcare, environmental monitoring, and more.
The working principle of an electrochemical immunosensor is based on the fact that the specific immunochemical recognition between antibodies/antigens immobilized on a transducer surface and antigens/antibodies in the sample can produce a measurable electrochemical signal varying with the concentration of the analyte of interest. Direct detection methods often rely on the inherent electroactivity of the analyte or an attached label, while indirect detection involves secondary reactions, or labels that produce an electroactive species in response to analyte binding.
Despite their advantages, challenges such as the stability of antibody immobilization, sensor reproducibility, and interference from complex biological matrices need to be addressed to realize the full potential of electrochemical immunosensors in real-world applications.
Several electrochemical techniques, including amperometry, voltammetry, and impedance spectroscopy, are utilized to measure the signal generated upon antigen-antibody interaction. These measurements can be highly sensitive, detecting changes in current, potential, or impedance that correspond to analyte concentration.
The most crucial step in the development of effective electrochemical immunosensors is the antibody immobilization over the electrode surface. This process must preserve the antibodies' functionality and orientation to ensure efficient antigen binding. Various strategies, including self-assembled monolayers, polymer coatings, and nanomaterial-based approaches, have been explored to optimize antibody immobilization and sensor performance.
Nanomaterials play a pivotal role in enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of electrochemical immunosensors. Materials such as gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and graphene offer large surface areas for antibody attachment, excellent electrical conductivity, and the ability to facilitate electron transfer, amplifying the electrochemical signal.
The integration of electrochemical immunosensors with microfluidic systems and portable electronics heralds a new era of point-of-care diagnostics. These devices can provide rapid, on-site analysis with minimal sample preparation, making them invaluable tools in areas lacking access to centralized laboratory facilities.The continued convergence of biotechnology, nanotechnology, and electrochemistry promises to expand the capabilities of electrochemical immunosensors, opening new avenues for sensitive, selective, and accessible detection of a broad spectrum of analytes.